Canada (  /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9.9 million square kilometres, Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.

The land that is now Canada was inhabited for millennia by various groups of Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored, and later settled, along the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.

Canada is a federal state that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a bilingual nation with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. One of the world's most highly developed countries, Canada has a diversified economy that is reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade – particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship. It is a member of the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Commonwealth of Nations, Francophonie, OAS, APEC, and UN. With the sixth-highest Human Development Index globally, Canada has one of the highest standards of living in the world.

Etymology

The name Canada comes from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".^[10] In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.^[11] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village, but also the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as Canada.^[11]

In the 17th and early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. The area was later split into two British colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. They were re-unified as the Province of Canada in 1841.^[12] Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and Dominion was conferred as the country's title.^[13] As Canada asserted its political autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly used simply Canada on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.^[14]

Canada
 
Flag Coat of arms
 
Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare  (Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"
Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"[1][2]
 
Capital Ottawa
45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.4°N 75.667°W / 45.4; -75.667
Largest city Toronto
Official language(s) English and French
Recognised regional languages Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, Cree, Dëne Sųłiné, Gwich’in, Inuvialuktun, Slavey and Tłįchǫ Yatiì[3]
Demonym Canadian
Government Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy[4]
 -  Monarch Elizabeth II
 -  Governor General David Johnston
 -  Prime Minister Stephen Harper
Legislature Parliament
 -  Upper House Senate
 -  Lower House House of Commons
Establishment
 -  British North America Acts July 1, 1867 
 -  Statute of Westminster December 11, 1931 
 -  Canada Act April 17, 1982 
Area
 -  Total 9,984,670 km2 (2nd)
3,854,085 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) 8.92 (891,163 km2/344,080 mi2)
Population
 -  2011 estimate 34,640,000[5] (35th)
 -  2006 census 31,612,897[6] 
 -  Density 3.41/km2 (228th)
8.3/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate
 -  Total $1.391 trillion[7] (14th)
 -  Per capita $40,457[7] (15th)
GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate
 -  Total $1.758 trillion[7] (11th)
 -  Per capita $51,147[7] (10th)
Gini (2005) 32.1[8] (medium) 
HDI (2011)  0.908[9] (very high) (6th)
Currency Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone (UTC−3.5 to −8)
 -  Summer (DST)  (UTC−2.5 to −7)
Date formats dd-mm-yyyy, mm-dd-yyyy, and yyyy-mm-dd (CE)
Drives on the Right
ISO 3166 code CA
Internet TLD .ca
Calling code +1
Canada portal

After all the buildup, Game of Century decided by ... kickers

SI.com - ‎24 minutes ago‎
This really was the Game of the Century ... if you like defense. Andy Staples explains how killer defense and special teams led the No. 1 Tigers to a 9-6 overtime win over the No. 2 Crimson Tide. LSU kicker Drew Alleman (30) and punter Brad Wing (38) ... Despite lack of offense, LSU proved it's nation's best by beating 'Bama

SI.com - ‎33 minutes ago‎
Naturally, the Game of the Century went to overtime. No. 1 LSU survived No. 2 Alabama in a closely fought defensive battle that saw zero touchdowns, four missed 'Bama field goals and an extra frame. LSU's touted secondary delivered against Alabama, ... Unscripted game spawns unlikely stars

ESPN - ‎1 hour ago‎

TUSCALOOSA, Ala. -- Of all the predictions spewed forth as No. 1 LSU and No. 2 Alabama spent two weeks preparing for one another, the one that resonated in the aftermath of the Tigers' 9-6 overtime victory over the Crimson Tide is the ... No. 1 LSU stays unbeaten with an overtime defeat of Alabama

USA Today - ‎1 hour ago‎

TUSCALOOSA, Ala. – The "Game of the Century" had no touchdowns, but it had a very happy ending for LSU. By Streeter Lecka, Getty Images LSU coach Les Miles his players celebrates with beating Alabama in overtime to ... No. 1 LSU beats No. 2 Alabama 9-6 in OT

San Francisco Chronicle - ‎54 minutes ago‎

Dave Martin / AP LSU kicker Drew Alleman (above, with chin strap showing) basks in the glory after his field goal won it in overtime. The Tigers have the inside track for a spot in the BCS title game. The defenses lived up to the ...

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Blogs Final: LSU 9, Alabama 6 (OT)

ESPN (blog) - ‎12 minutes ago‎

TUSCALOOSA, Ala. -- In a game that didn't feature a single touchdown, No. 1 LSU defeated No. 2 Alabama 9-6 on Saturday at Bryant-Denny Stadium. How the game was won: LSU's defense made one stand after another, giving up some yardage ... SEC Winners and Losers, Week 10

CBSSports.com (blog) - ‎15 minutes ago‎

Usually, we'd find some specific angle to take within the team or the coaching staff when naming our "top" winner. Saying LSU was your big winner this SEC Saturday is like saying fire is hot. But the stakes were so high for their win over Alabama, ... LSU goes 'old school' on Alabama

ESPN (blog) - ‎16 minutes ago‎

TUSCALOOSA, Ala. -- There were people hitting the turf before the ball was ever kicked off Saturday, namely LSU coach Les Miles. As his team came stampeding out of the locker room, Miles took a tumble when he didn't quite get out of the ...

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United States LSU kicks winning field goal in OT for defensive-minded win over Alabama

ESPN (blog) - ‎1 hour ago‎

Fans congregate before the first half of an NCAA college football game between LSU and Alabama, Saturday, Nov. 5,... It was over when... LSU kicker Drew Alleman split the uprights on a 25-yard field goal in overtime. Gameball goes to. ... LSU vs. Alabama Recap

CBSSports.com - ‎1 hour ago‎

In one of the biggest games ever, the LSU Tigers defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide 9-6 after a game-winning field goal in overtime. Verne Lundquist and Gary Danielson recap this exciting matcup. Please log in or register to view your favorite teams ... Jefferson sparks LSU in win vs. 'Bama

ESPN (blog) - ‎1 hour ago‎

LSU and Alabama proved low-scoring games can be as exciting as their high-scoring counterparts. LSU won the lowest-scoring game between the AP No. 1 and No. 2 since 1946, when Army and Notre Dame finished in a scoreless tie. ...

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Birmingham, AL Down to the wire? Camera operator disputes Marquis Maze's claim (link)

The Birmingham News - al.com - ‎24 minutes ago‎

View full sizeAlabama tight end Michael Williams (89) and LSU safety Eric Reid (1) fight for control of a pass by wide receiver Marquis Maze in the fourth quarter at Bryant-Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Ala., Saturday, Nov. 5, 2011. ... Encore? Let the LSU-Alabama rematch arguments begin

The Birmingham News - al.com - ‎1 hour ago‎

Enlarge Bill Starling Alabama defensive back Dee Milliner (28) tries to pull down LSU running back Spencer Ware (11) during their game at Bryant-Denny Stadium on the University of Alabama campus in Tuscaloosa, Ala. (Press-Register, Bill Starling) LSU ... Video: Nick Saban, Alabama players after OT loss to LSU

The Birmingham News - al.com - ‎1 hour ago‎

By Dennis Pillion, al.com Alabama RB Trent Richardson after OT loss to LSU Alabama running back Trent Richardson after the Crimson Tide lost to the LSU Tigers 9-6 in overtime at Bryant-Denny Stadium. Richardson had 89 rushing yards and 80 receiving ...

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New Orleans, LA No. 1 LSU defeats No. 2 Alabama 9-6 in overtime

NOLA.com - ‎2 hours ago‎

By Jim Kleinpeter, The Times Picayune TUSCALOOSA, ALA. - The Game of the Century was a dud offensively, but for intensity and defensive play it wasn't big enough for regulation. And it simply wasn't suited for touchdowns. Drew Alleman kicked his third ... LSU defense wins the war in huge victory over Alabama

NOLA.com - ‎2 hours ago‎

By Tammy Nunez, The Times-Picayune Tuscaloosa, Ala. - Those predicting a defensive skirmish for Saturday's main feature between No. 1 LSU and No. 2 Alabama might not have predicted a touchdown-less game, but that's what transpired in the 9-6 LSU ... Tyrann Mathieu, Spencer Ware and Tharold Simon return from suspensions

NOLA.com - ‎2 hours ago‎

By John Reid, The Times Picayune Tuscaloosa, Ala. -- In the most anticipated game of the season, LSU Coach Les Miles had three of his key players - cornerback Tyrann Mathieu, running back Spencer Ware and key reserve defensive back Tharold Simon - back ...

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Tuscaloosa, AL Tide suffers first loss of the season

The University of Alabama Crimson White - ‎2 hours ago‎

TUSCALOOSA| For Alabama Saturday night's 9-6 overtime loss to LSU was a story of missed opportunities. The Crimson Tide missed four field goals on the night, including a 52-yard attempt by Cade Foster in over time. ... No. 2 Alabama Football Falls to No. 1 LSU, 9-6

rolltide.com - ‎4 hours ago‎

TUSCALOOSA, Ala. - The No. 2 Alabama football team fell to No. 1 LSU 9-6 in overtime in front of a sold-out crowd of 101821 Saturday night at Bryant-Denny Stadium. Alabama goes 8-1 overall and 5-1 in Southeastern Conference play while LSU improves to ... No. 1 vs. No. 2 matchup has all the makings of a classic

Tuscaloosa News (subscription) - ‎Nov 5, 2011‎

TUSCALOOSA | Every so often in regular-season play, the ingredients for the grandest of college football games — high stakes, high anticipation, high rankings — converge in such a way that the moniker meets the marquee: “Game of the ...

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5.6 magnitude quake rocks Okla. on day of quakes

The Associated Press - ‎13 minutes ago‎

SPARKS, Okla. (AP) — A 5.6 magnitude quake rocked central Oklahoma late Saturday after a day of smaller quakes, leaving cracked buildings and a buckled highway but no initial reports of major damage. The temblor was so strong it rattled a packed ... US Geological Survey says 5.6 magnitude quake hits central Okla.; officials ...
Washington Post - ‎50 minutes ago‎

SPARKS, Okla. — One of the strongest earthquakes in state history rocked central Oklahoma late Saturday after a day of smaller quakes, a 5.6 magnitude temblor that rattled a college football stadium 50 miles away, shook buildings, caused cracks and was ... 5.6 earthquake hits central Oklahoma after earlier shakers
msnbc.com - ‎27 minutes ago‎

As cold weather starts setting in, it gets harder and harder to want to venture out after a long work week. If you are sta... What could be the largest temblor in the state's history damaged homes, shook buildings, caused cracks and rattled a college ... Oklahoma rattled by 5.6 earthquake
The Guardian - ‎28 minutes ago‎

Oklahoma has been shaken by a series of earthquakes, culminating in a 5.6 magnitude quake that is the state's biggest on record. Photograph: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Earthquakes of up to 5.6 magnitude have shaken Oklahoma, damaging buildings and roads and ... 5.6 Magnitude Quake Rattles Oklahoma
Wall Street Journal - ‎1 hour ago‎
AP OKLAHOMA CITY—A 5.6-magnitude earthquake rocked central Oklahoma, rattling buildings across a wide area and a stadium where a football game had just concluded, but authorities said they had no immediate reports of injuries or major damage. ...

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Blogs Oklahoma rattled by state's largest quake

CNN (blog) - ‎1 hour ago‎
A 5.6-magnitude earthquake struck central Oklahoma late Saturday night - the largest to hit the state since record-keeping began. The quake struck 4 miles east of Sparks in Lincoln County at 11:53 pm ET, the United States Geological Survey said. ... Pictures From the Oklahoma Quake
KTUL (blog) - ‎2 hours ago‎

The US Geological Survey updated Saturday night's earthquake to a 5.6 magnitude centered between Sparks and Prague. Social networking sites like Twitter and Facebook blew up when the shaking started and many of you sent in pictures. ... USGS: Latest Quake Registers 5.2
KTUL (blog) - ‎3 hours ago‎
For the ninth time in less than 24 hours, an earthquake has shaken Oklahoma, with the latest being larger than the initial quake. The US Geological Survey reports the latest quake occurred at 10:53 pm and had a magnitude of 5-point-2 on the Richter ...

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United States 5.6 magnitude earthquake in Oklahoma buckles highway, cracks buildings and
New York Daily News - ‎2 minutes ago‎
BY AP SPARKS, Okla. (AP) - A 5.6 magnitude quake rocked central Oklahoma late Saturday after a day of smaller quakes, leaving cracked buildings and a buckled highway but no initial reports of major damage. The temblor was so strong it rattled a packed ... Oklahoma officials survey damage after strongest quake in state history

Los Angeles Times - ‎1 hour ago‎
Jim Greff, the city manager of Prague, Okla., said "we're a little shook up" following Saturday night's 5.6 earthquake near Oklahoma City, the most powerful in state history. "This last one shook much harder than the one this morning," Greff said, ... Oklahoma quake buckles highway, damages several homes

Los Angeles Times - ‎2 hours ago‎
No serious injuries had been reported as of midnight after the 5.6 magnitude earthquake near Oklahoma City, but a major highway buckled in three places, at least three homes sustained major damage and others had roof and chimney damage, officials said. ...
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California Magnitude 5.6 earthquake strikes near Oklahoma City
Los Angeles Times - ‎3 hours ago‎

A 5.6-magnitude earthquake struck near Oklahoma City at 8:53 pm Pacific Time, the US Geological Survey reported. The quake was a shallow 3.1 miles deep and was centered four miles east of Sparks, which is east of Oklahoma City. ... Small quake rattles Bay Area
San Francisco Chronicle - ‎9 hours ago‎
(11-05) 15:22 PDT Oakland -- Another small earthquake rattled the East Bay today, the latest in a string of temblors along the Hayward Fault. The 3.2-magnitude quake hit at 2:52 pm, centered near Lake Temescal in Oakland, according to the US Geological ... Magnitude 3.2 earthquake strikes near Berkeley

Los Angeles Times - ‎9 hours ago‎
A shallow, magnitude 3.2 earthquake was reported Saturday afternoon two miles from the Bay Area town of Piedmont, according to the US Geological Survey. The temblor occurred at 2:52 pm at a depth of 3.7 miles. According to the US Geological Survey, ...
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Tulsa, OK 5.6 Magnitude Earthquake Rattles Oklahoma
News On 6 - ‎1 hour ago‎

First reports had it listed as 5.2 magnitude. The earthquake shook Oklahoma again Saturday night, according to the Oklahoma Geological Survey. The earthquake struck Oklahoma at 10:53 pm Saturday. ... 5.6 earthquake causes significant damage
KOKI FOX 23 - ‎2 hours ago‎
The USGS says a 5.6 magnitude earthquake struck Oklahoma just before 11 pm Saturday night, the biggest earthquake in Oklahoma history. Joey Wakefield, Lincoln County Emergency Management Director, tells FOX23 there are three homes with significant ... Strong 5.2 earthquake rattles Oklahoma

kjrh.com - ‎3 hours ago‎

Copyright 2011 Scripps Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed. TULSA - The US Geological Survey is reporting that the latest in a series of earthquakes based in Oklahoma is the ...
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Oklahoma City, OK Record 5.6 magnitude earthquake shakes Oklahoma

NewsOK.com - ‎1 hour ago‎

The Saturday night earthquake had a magnitude of 5.6, and its epicenter was four miles east of Sparks in Lincoln County, according to the Oklahoma Geological Survey. The quake hit at 10:53 pm, and it was reportedly felt as far away as Illinois, Kansas, ... Eight quakes reported in 24 hours in Oklahoma
NewsOK.com - ‎1 hour ago‎

US Geological Survey geophysicist Jill McCarthy said there were two temblors Saturday — a 4.7 magnitude about 2 am and a 5.6 magnitude shortly before 11 pm, and a series of aftershocks in between. By Matt Dinger mdinger@opubco.com Leave a comment ... State record 5.6-magnitude quakes rocks Oklahoma, surrounding states

KFOR - ‎2 hours ago‎

SPARKS -- The US Geological Survey indicated an Oklahoma state record 5.6-magnitude earthquake at approximately 10:53pm Saturday evening -- the strongest ever recorded in Oklahoma. The quake was centered near the town of Sparks Oklahoma and was felt ...
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Dec 11 SDS111217C00021000 1.23  0.05

Jan 13 SDS130119P00015000 1.30  0.10

Put Options Strike Price at 15.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 INTC111119P00015000 0.01 0.00 N/A 0.01 375 2,509
Dec 11 INTC111217P00015000 0.03  0.03 0.03 0.04 4 858
Jan 12 INTC120121P00015000 0.07 0.00 0.06 0.07 759 116,200
Apr 12 INTC120421P00015000 0.17 0.00 0.20 0.22 35 1,517
Jul 12 INTC120721P00015000 0.39 0.00 0.35 0.37 10 869
Jan 13 INTC130119P00015000 0.70  0.01 0.69 0.73 10 39,007
Jan 14 INTC140118P00015000 1.38  0.02 1.45 1.48 10
 

Jan 12 INTC120121C00035000 0.01 0.00 N/A 0.03 25 10,178
Jan 13 INTC130119C00035000 0.24 0.00 0.23 0.27 27 27,338
Jan 14 INTC140118C00035000 0.68  0.01 0.60 0.74 6

Call Options Strike Price at 10.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 GE111119C00010000 6.40 0.00 6.30 6.45 13 53
Dec 11 GE111217C00010000 6.97 0.00 6.40 6.45 8 359
Jan 12 GE120121C00010000 6.90 0.00 6.40 6.50 17 4,874
Mar 12 GE120317C00010000 6.55  0.30 6.40 6.50 5 1,217
Jun 12 GE120616C00010000 7.05 0.00 6.45 6.60 90 468
Jan 13 GE130119C00010000 6.60  0.20 6.55 6.65 128 10,691
 
 
Put Options Strike Price at 10.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 GE111119P00010000 0.01 0.00 N/A 0.01 100 8,346
Dec 11 GE111217P00010000 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.05 40 12,687
Jan 12 GE120121P00010000 0.11  0.01 0.09 0.11 13 150,278
Feb 12 GE120218P00010000 0.17 0.00 0.12 0.15 2,750 2,756
Mar 12 GE120317P00010000 0.20 0.00 0.16 0.18 76 15,670
Jun 12 GE120616P00010000 0.29 0.00 0.28 0.31 10 2,097
Jan 13 GE130119P00010000 0.64 0.00 0.62 0.67 43 48,
 

Call Options Strike Price at 13.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 CSCO111119C00013000 5.00  0.05 5.00 5.10 3 2,025
Dec 11 CSCO111217C00013000 4.91  0.19 5.05 5.15 3 1,017
Apr 12 CSCO120421C00013000 5.30  0.30 5.25 5.35 7 872
 
 
Put Options Strike Price at 13.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 CSCO111119P00013000 0.01 0.00 N/A 0.01 280 10,449
Dec 11 CSCO111217P00013000 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.06 71 1,233
Feb 12 CSCO120218P00013000 0.23 0.00 0.19 0.21 47 107
Apr 12 CSCO120421P00013000 0.33 0.00 0.32 0.34 15 8,203
Jul 12 CSCO120721P00013000 0.55 0.00 0.53 0.56 10
 

Call Options Strike Price at 15.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 LOW111119C00015000 6.25 0.00 6.25 6.70 0 20
Jan 12 LOW120121C00015000 6.55 0.00 6.45 6.75 3 1,928
Apr 12 LOW120421C00015000 4.90 0.00 6.40 6.95 0 47
Jan 13 LOW130119C00015000 7.50 0.00 6.80 7.35 1 3,138
Jan 14 LOW140118C00015000 7.60 0.00 7.10 7.75 0 358
 
 
Put Options Strike Price at 15.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 LOW111119P00015000 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02 11 648
Dec 11 LOW111217P00015000 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.07 10 10
Jan 12 LOW120121P00015000 0.12 0.00 0.12 0.15 88 4,572
Apr 12 LOW120421P00015000 0.33  0.10 0.33 0.36 1 756
Jan 13 LOW130119P00015000 1.10 0.00 0.97 1.05 12 6,068
Jan 14 LOW140118P00015000 2.08 0.00 1.76 1.98 1
 

Call Options Strike Price at 15.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
 
 
Put Options Strike Price at 15.00
Expires Symbol Last Chg Bid Ask Vol Open Int
Nov 11 ALL111119P00015000 0.02 0.00 N/A 0.01 1 223
Jan 12 ALL120121P00015000 0.08 0.00 0.08 0.11 40 697
Apr 12 ALL120421P00015000 0.39 0.00 0.18 0.27 0 174
Jan 13 ALL130119P00015000 0.99 0.00 0.69 0.86 0 149
Jan 14 ALL140118P00015000 1.90 0.00 1.38 1.81 0
 

History
Main article: History of Canada
See also: Timeline of Canadian history
Aboriginal peoples
Main article: Aboriginal peoples in Canada
Archaeological and genetic studies support a human presence in the northern Yukon from 26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago.[15][16][17] Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the earliest archaeological sites of human (Paleo-Indians) habitation in Canada.[18][19][20] The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[21][22] Some of these cultures had faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and have been discovered through archaeological investigations.[23]

The aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000[24] and two million in the late 15th century,[25] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health.[26] Repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles, and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a forty to eighty percent aboriginal population decrease post-contact.[24] Aboriginal peoples in Canada include the First Nations,[27] Inuit,[28] and Métis.[29] The Métis are a mixed-blood people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit married European settlers.[30] The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.[31]

European colonization
Main articles: New France and Canada under British rule (1763–1867)
Further information: Former colonies and territories in Canada
 
Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759European colonization began when Norsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000.[32] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England.[33] Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[34] In 1534 Jacques Cartier explored the Saint Lawrence River for France.[35]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed St. John's, Newfoundland as the first North American English colony by royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I.[36] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608. Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out over control of the North American fur trade.[35]

The English established additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland, Newfoundland beginning in 1610 and soon after founded the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[34] A series of four French and Indian Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763.[35] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years' War.[37]

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[14] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[38] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies and helped to fuel the American Revolution.[14]

The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[39]

 
Robert Harris's Fathers of Confederation,[40] an amalgamation of the Charlottetown and Quebec conferencesThe Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815.[25] From 1825 to 1846, 626,628 European immigrants landed at Canadian ports.[41] Between one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious diseases.[24]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[14] The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.[42] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[43]

Confederation and expansion
Main articles: Canadian Confederation and Territorial evolution of Canada
 
An animated map, exhibiting the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since ConfederationFollowing several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[44][45][46] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[47] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.[48] Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and his Conservative government established a National Policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.[46]

To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[49][50] In 1898, after the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon Territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[48]

Early 20th century
Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
 
Canadian soldiers at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps. The Corps played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major battles of the war.[51] Out of approximately 625,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.[52] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain and,[51] the Statute of Westminster 1931 affirmed Canada's independence.[4]

The Great Depression brought economic hardship throughout Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) into the 1940s and 1950s.[53] Canada declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.[51]

Canadian troops played important roles in the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[51] Canada provided asylum for the monarchy of the Netherlands while that country was occupied, and is credited by the country for leadership and major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[54] The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[51] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[55]

Modern times
Main articles: History of Canada (1945–1960), (1960–1981), (1982–1992), and (1992–present)
 
At Rideau Hall, Governor General the Viscount Alexander of Tunis (centre) receives the bill finalizing the union of Newfoundland and Canada, March 31, 1949.Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) joined Canada in 1949.[56] Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[57] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[58] and official multiculturalism in 1971.[59] There was also the founding of socially democratic programmes, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[60] Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[61] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[62]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis in 1970.[63] The sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976 and organized an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[64] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[65][66] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[64]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[67] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[68] and the Oka Crisis in 1990,[69] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.[70] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the late 1990s.[71] It sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to send forces to Iraq when the US invaded in 2003.[72]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Canada
 
A satellite composite image of Canada. Boreal forests prevail on the rocky Canadian Shield. Ice and tundra are prominent in the Arctic. Glaciers are visible in the Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountains. Flat and fertile prairies facilitate agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the Saint Lawrence River (in the southeast), where lowlands host much of Canada's population.Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing the land borders with the contiguous United States to the south and the US state of Alaska to the northwest, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.[73][74] By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area, Canada ranks fourth.[74]

The country lies between latitudes 41° and 84°N, and longitudes 52° and 141°W. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141°W longitude,[75] but this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is Canadian Forces Station Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5°N – 817 kilometres (450 nautical miles, 508 miles) from the North Pole.[76] Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 202,080 kilometres (125,570 mi);[74] additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching over 8,890 kilometres (5,520 mi).[77]

 
The Horseshoe Falls in Niagara Falls, Ontario, is one of the world's most voluminous waterfalls,[78] renowned both for its beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric power.Since the last glacial period Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield.[79] Canada has more lakes than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.[80] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[81] The volcanic eruption of Tseax Cone in 1775 caused a catastrophic disaster, killing 2,000 Nisga'a people and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia; the eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and according to legend of the Nisga'a people, it blocked the flow of the Nass River.[82]

The population density, 3.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (8.5 /sq mi), is among the lowest in the world. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, situated in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[83]

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary according to the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F) but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[84] In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[85]

Government and politics
Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada
See also: Elections in Canada and List of political parties in Canada
 
Parliament Hill in Canada's capital, OttawaCanada has strong democratic traditions upheld through a parliamentary system within the construct of constitutional monarchy; the monarchy of Canada is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[86][87][88][89] The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's ten provinces and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queen's representative, the Governor General of Canada (presently David Lloyd Johnston), carries out most of the federal royal duties in Canada.[90][91]

The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited;[88][92][93] in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada (presently Stephen Harper[94]), the head of government, though the governor general or monarch may in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[n 1] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[95] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[92] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition (presently Nycole Turmel) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[96]

 
The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament HillEach of the 308 Members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government losing a confidence vote in the House.[97] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[98] Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2011 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the New Democratic Party (the Official Opposition), the Liberal Party of Canada, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada. The list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial.

Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[93] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces and with some structural differences.[99][100]

Law
Main article: Law of Canada
See also: Court system of Canada
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982) affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments; the Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy; and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the UK, added a constitutional amending formula, and added the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government – though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[101]

 
The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate the Numbered TreatiesAlthough not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. The Crown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period. Numbered Treaties, the Indian Act, the Constitution Act of 1982, and case laws were established.[102] A series of eleven treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada from 1871 to 1921.[103] These treaties are agreements with the Government of Canada administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. The role of the treaties was reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982, which "recognizes and affirms existing Aboriginal and treaty rights".[102] These rights may include provision of services such as health care, and exemption from taxation.[104] The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.[102]

 
The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament HillCanada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led by the Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin, P.C. (the first female Chief Justice) since 2000.[105] Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels.[106]

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[107] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[108]

Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada and Canadian Forces
 
Prime Minister Stephen Harper meeting President of the United States Barack ObamaCanada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.[109] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to officially participate in the Iraq War. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.[110] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation.[54]

Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of over 67,000 regular and approximately 43,000 reserve personnel including supplementary reserves.[111] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force.

Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, World War I and World War II. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[112][113] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and of NATO in 1949. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[114]

 
Canadian Army soldiers from the Royal 22nd Regiment during UNITAS Gold (April 25, 2009)During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[115] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept. Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[51] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.[116]

Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001.[117] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[118]

 
The Halifax-class frigate HMCS Regina, a warship of the Royal Canadian NavyIn 2001, Canada had troops deployed to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force. Starting in July 2011, Canada began withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan. The mission had cost 157 soldiers, one diplomat, two aid workers, and one journalist their lives,[119] with an approximate cost of C$11.3 billion[120] Canada and the US continue to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security along the Canada-United States border through the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative.[121]

In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.[122] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[123] In July 2010 the largest purchase in Canadian military history, totaling C$9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F-35 fighters was announced by the federal government.[124]

Provinces and territories
Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada
See also: Canadian federalism
Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories. The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as health care, education, and welfare) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[125]

A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories, and their capitals.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Canada
 
Representatives of the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States sign the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1992Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per-capita income. It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the G8, and is one of the world's top ten trading nations.[126] Canada is a mixed economy, ranking above the US and most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom.[127] The largest foreign importers of Canadian goods are the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan.[128]

In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to a more industrial and urban one. Like other First World nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.[129] Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the logging and petroleum industries are two of the most important.[130]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[131] Atlantic Canada has vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta has large oil and gas resources. The immense Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's second-largest oil reserves, after Saudi Arabia.[132]

Canada is one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[133] Canada is the largest producer of zinc and uranium, and is a global source of many other natural resources, such as gold, nickel, aluminum, and lead.[131] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[134]

 
The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[135]

In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to "Investment Canada" in order to encourage foreign investment.[136] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in the 1990s.[133] In the mid-1990s, the Liberal government under Jean Chrétien began to post annual budgetary surpluses and steadily paid down the national debt.[137] The global financial crisis of 2008 caused a recession, which could increase the country's unemployment rate to 10 percent.[138] In 2008, Canada's imported goods were worth over $442.9 billion, of which $280.8 billion was from the United States, $11.7 billion from Japan, and $11.3 billion from the United Kingdom.[128] The country’s 2009 trade deficit totaled C$4.8 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.[139]

As of October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate was 8.6 percent. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador.[140] Between October 2008, and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of 224,000 permanent jobs.[141] Canada's federal debt is estimated to be $566.7 billion for 2010–11, up from $463.7 billion in 2008–09.[142] Canada’s net foreign debt rose by $41-billion to $194-billion in the first quarter of 2010.[143]

Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Canada
 
The Canadarm in action on the Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-116Canada is an industrial nation with a highly developed science and technology sector. Nearly 1.88 percent of Canada's GDP is allocated to research & development (R&D).[144] The country has ten Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry and medicine.[145] Canada ranks twelfth in the world for Internet usage with 28.0 million users, 84.3 percent of the total population.[146]

The Canadian Space Agency conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and develops rockets and satellites. In 1984, Marc Garneau became Canada's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-41-G. In a 2011 review of academic institutions, Canada was ranked third among countries in the impact of space science research publications.[147] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station and one of the world's pioneers in space robotics with the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre. Since the 1960s, Canada Aerospace Industries have designed and built 10 satellites, including Radarsat-1, Radarsat-2 and MOST.[148] Canada also produced one of the most successful sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1000 have been launched since they were initially produced in 1961.[149] Universities across Canada are working on the first domestic landing spacecraft: the Northern Light, designed to search for life on Mars and investigate Martian electromagnetic radiation environment and atmospheric properties. If the Northern Light is successful, Canada will be the third country to land on another planet.[150]

Demographics
Historical populations
Year Pop. ±%
1851 2,415,000 —
1861 3,174,000 +31.4%
1871 3,689,000 +16.2%
1881 4,325,000 +17.2%
1891 4,833,000 +11.7%
1901 5,371,000 +11.1%
1911 7,207,000 +34.2%
1921 8,788,000 +21.9%
1931 10,377,000 +18.1%
1941 11,507,000 +10.9%
1951 14,009,000 +21.7%
1961 18,238,000 +30.2%
1971 21,962,000 +20.4%
1981 24,820,000 +13.0%
1991 28,031,000 +12.9%
2001 31,021,000 +10.7%
2011 est. 34,640,000 +11.7%
Source: Statistics Canada[151]
Main article: Demographics of Canada
See also: Ethnic origins of people in Canada
The Canada 2006 Census counted a total population of 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4 percent since 2001.[152] Population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4 % growth in population compared to 21,7 % growth in the USA and 31.2 % growth in Mexico. According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics between 1990–2008 the world population growth was 27 % and 1,423 million persons.[153] Population growth is from immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About four-fifths of Canada's population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the United States border.[154] The majority of Canadians (approximately 80%) live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, the BC Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[155] In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age of the population was 39.5 years.[156]

According to the 2006 census, the largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (32%), followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), First Nations (4.0%), Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (3.3%).[157] There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,172,790 people.[158]

Canada's Aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and 3.8 percent of Canada's population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to a non-aboriginal visible minority.[159] The largest visible minority groups in Canada are South Asian (4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%). Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 percent.[160] In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) could be classified as belonging to a visible minority group and less than 1% as aboriginal.[161] As of 2007, almost one in five Canadians (19.8%) were foreign-born. Nearly 60 percent of new immigrants come from Asia (including the Middle East).[162] The leading emigrating countries to Canada were China, Philippines and India.[163] By 2031, one in three Canadians could belong to a visible minority group.[164]

Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[165] driven by economic policy and family reunification, and is aiming for between 240,000 and 265,000 new permanent residents in 2011, the same number of immigrants as in recent years.[166] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas like Toronto and Vancouver.[167] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees.[168] The country resettles over one in 10 of the world’s refugees.[169]

According to the 2001 census, 77.1 percent of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians). The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (9.5% of Canadians), followed by the Anglicans (6.8%), Baptists (2.4%), Lutherans (2%), and other Christians (4.4%). About 16.5 percent of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3 percent are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which is Islam (2.0%), followed by Judaism (1.1%).[170]

Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. Each system is similar, while reflecting regional history, culture and geography. The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[171] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[74] In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.[172]

 Largest metropolitan areas in Canada by population (2006 Census) view · talk · edit
Name Province Population   Name Province Population 
Toronto Ontario 5,113,149   Kitchener–Cambridge-Waterloo Ontario 451,235
Montreal Quebec 3,635,571   St. Catharines–Niagara Ontario 390,317
Vancouver British Columbia 2,316,581   Halifax Nova Scotia 372,858
Ottawa–Gatineau Ontario–Quebec 1,130,761   Oshawa Ontario 330,594
Calgary Alberta 1,079,310   Victoria British Columbia 330,088
Edmonton Alberta 1,034,945   Windsor Ontario 323,342
Quebec Quebec 0715,515   Saskatoon Saskatchewan 233,923
Winnipeg Manitoba 0694,898   Regina Saskatchewan 194,971
Hamilton Ontario 0692,911   Sherbrooke Quebec 186,952
London Ontario 0457,720   St. John's Newfoundland and Labrador 181,113

Language
Main article: Languages of Canada
 
In 2006, about 17.4% of the population were bilingual, as they were able to conduct a conversation in both official languages.
  English – 57.8%
  English and French (Bilingual) – 17.4%
  French – 22.1%
  Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km2)Canada's two official languages are English and French. Official bilingualism is defined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Official Languages Act, and Official Language Regulations; it is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[173]

English and French are the first languages of 59.7 and 23.2 percent of the population respectively. Approximately 98 percent of Canadians speak English or French: 57.8% speak English only, 22.1% speak French only, and 17.4% speak both.[174] English and French Official Language Communities, defined by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0 and 23.6 percent of the population respectively.[175]

The Charter of the French Language makes French the official language in Quebec.[176] Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in Ontario, Alberta, and southern Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[177] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[178]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official.[179] There are 11 Aboriginal language groups, made up of more than 65 distinct dialects.[180] Of these, only Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.[181] Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[182] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory.[183]

Over six million people in Canada list a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese; 1,012,065 first-language speakers), Italian (455,040), German (450,570), Punjabi (367,505) and Spanish (345,345).[184] English and French are the languages most spoken at home by 68.3 percent and 22.3 percent of the population respectively.[185]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Canada
See also: Canadian art, Music of Canada, Sports in Canada, and National symbols of Canada
Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and cultures, and has constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism.[186] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a culture of Quebec as distinguished from English Canadian culture;[187] however, as a whole Canada is a cultural mosaic – a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.[188] Government policies such as publicly-funded health care, higher taxation to distribute wealth, outlawing capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, an emphasis on multiculturalism, stricter gun control, and legalization of same-sex marriage are social indicators of how Canada's political and cultural evolution differs from that of the United States.[189]

 
Bill Reid's sculpture Raven and The First Men. The Raven is a figure common to many mythologies in aboriginal culture.Historically Canada has been influenced by British, French, and aboriginal cultures and traditions. Through their culture, language, art and music, aboriginals continue to influence the Canadian identity.[190] Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural.[61] American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.[191] Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market. The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada, and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission.[192]

 
The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson, 1916; oil on canvas, in the collection of the National Gallery of CanadaCanadian visual art has been dominated by Tom Thomson – Canada's most famous painter – and by the Group of Seven. Thomson's brief career painting Canadian landscapes spanned just a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.[193] The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists – Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley – were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926.[194] Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[195]

The Canadian music industry has produced internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[196] Canada's music broadcasting is regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences administers Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which commenced in 1970.[197] The national anthem of Canada O Canada adopted in 1980, was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony.[198] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.[199]

 
A scene at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver seconds after Team Canada won gold in men's ice hockeyCanada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[200] Hockey is a national pastime and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is also the sport most played by Canadians, with 1.65 million participants in 2004. Seven of Canada's eight largest metropolitan areas – Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton and Winnipeg – have franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the NHL than from all other countries combined. Other popular spectator sports include curling and football; the latter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL). Golf, baseball, skiing, soccer, cricket, volleyball, and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels, but professional leagues and franchises are not widespread.[201]

Canada has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, and the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Canada was the host nation for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia.[202]

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, on the penny, and on the Arms of Canada.[203] Other prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada Goose, Common Loon, the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,[203] and more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk.[204]

See also
 Canada portal
 
 Book: Canada
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.
Outline of Canada

Bibliography of Canada

Index of Canada-related articles

Notes
^ See Note 1 at Queen's Privy Council for Canada.
References
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